There are common problems a dog owner experiences with an un-trained dog. I am an owner of a 1 year old Female Boxer that had some of the same problems most dog owners have like, barking when the door bell rings or peeing in the house. I searched the internet frantically trying to find something to aid me in training my dog not to do these things. and I didn't want to pay a dog trainer hundreds of dollars for a few hours a week. I stumbled across the "Sit Stay Fetch" program which is a very easy to read eBook, now of course I was very skeptical at first just like anybody else would be reading an eBook.
But I was extremely surprised how detailed this program actually was after doing a little research on it, so I purchased it. Its a very easy and simple book to follow and gives you tips and tricks you probably would never think of like the whisper method which actually works quite well. This program takes you on a step-by-step process that is incredibly effective and can be implemented very easily. So whether you are a current or new dog owner this program is right up your alley.
Dog training can be trying both physically and mentally to people who try to train a dog on their own, but in fact young dogs need to be taught how to behave properly whether at home or in public. And that old saying that "you cant teach an old dog new tricks" is also wrong from my experience with dogs throughout the years. The Sit Stay Fetch program will help break older dogs of bad habits as well.
The truth is that almost anyone can learn how to train a dog because it all comes back to one core concept, instinct. And the author of this program Daniel Stevens is very experienced in the dog training area. He has an extreme amount of training content that you can research through google and other book stores. Learning how to train a dog isn't about using any fancy toys, covert hand signals, or silent whistles. It's all about knowing how your dog thinks of itself and of it's owners. He teaches how to understand these characteristics in the Sit Stay Fetch Program.
The Sit StayFetch e-book is sectioned into three chapters that cover the unique aspects of having a dog or puppy. The first part is an intro section for first time dog owners or if you are thinking of buying a dog. The second section is for the more experienced dog owner. The last part goes into more detail on the increasingly popular technique of "dog whispering", which I mentioned earlier in this article as well as a little more learning about common and uncommon dog problems and teaching more advanced commands and tricks.
Check out the Sit Stay And Fetch program below, your dog will love you for it!
Every dog needs to be trained at some point to ensure that they behave in ways that are beneficial to themselves and their family. You will find helpful advice about dog training in this article.
Dogs have natural destructive behavior, so provide outlets for them to exercise their natural behaviors. Dogs also need to be fed a healthy diet, get exercise, and be kept busy, just as you do. When you begin house training, select a phrase to use repeatedly with your pet. When you are outside with the puppy, say the chosen phrase to keep him focused on the task he is to accomplish. You need to leash train your dog. This will make your walks together a pleasure and not a source of frustration. Harnesses are not as uncomfortable as a collar for the dog, but a harness offers less control for the owner, making training the dog more difficult. Use a combination of a collar and a harness, and only tug on the collar if it is really needed. This will teach your dog to obey you while harnessed.
Having more than one dog to train at a time will be a challenge. If you attempt to train your dogs at the same time and notice that they are not able to concentrate the way that you want them to, you may need to train them separately.
It's important to use treats that really capture your dog's full attention when training. Great treats such as small pieces of cheese or a dab of peanut butter can go a long way. Keep track of the number of treats you give your dog. Your dog needs to watch his weight, too. Many people overlook treats when considering the animal's diet, but they certainly add up, especially during active training. Have several different treats available as rewards for your dog so he doesn't get bored. Training treats should not become confused with everyday treats, since training treats are meant to encourage obedience in your dog.
It is natural for a teething puppy to want to chew things. It is up to you to remove things from his reach when you are away and can't correct him. If you cannot do this, then make rooms that have valuable items in them inaccessible. Most dogs have anxiety as a reason for chewing. Dogs like to den up. Giving him a crate to lie in and a toy to chew on will make your dog feel secure and keep him occupied.
Training depends on consistency. You need to be the one in charge at all times. To keep your training on track, it's important to only issue commands when you into to follow through with receiving the expected behavior from your pet. You should not initiate a training session unless you are in a calm and patient mood. Be patient when training your puppy, so you can both stay focused.
If all else fails, an expert will be needed. Try taking obedience classes to make your dog become more obedient. Instructors have been trained to deal with all sorts of behavioral problems, and can even help you to learn the best ways to maintain a training routine. If you are thinking of hiring an animal specialist, be sure that you check their reputation and interview them thoroughly. There are a lot of different approaches taken by dog trainers concerning how to correctly train a dog. Understand the trainers philosophy so that you can be sure the trainers approach is similar with your own views of dog training.
Untrained or poorly trained dogs can wreak havoc on your home and drive you crazy in the process. By taking to heart the advice contained here, you will be well on your way to training your dog in the skills he needs to be a well-mannered pup.
An easy way learn about dog training is from a DVD. Take a look at my Dog Training DVD Reviews to find out what is the most popular and effective training DVD.
If you are frustrated with the fact that you just don't seem to be able to grasp the art of "Dog Whispering", take heart because professional dog training can help. Kudos to the Bob Villas of this world, but not everyone is cut out to be a do-it-yourselfer. Sending your dog out for training can be faster, easier, and yes, cheaper (in the long run) too.
You can spend a lot of hard-earned dough on videos, books, and gear and still wind up with a less than satisfactory experience. There is a time consideration too. If you are busy with work, friends, and family then it can be next to impossible to set aside the amount of time that you need.
Moreover, professional dog training can take a load off your mind. You can rest easier knowing that a real specialist is giving your dog personal instruction time. Some people just like knowing that they are getting the best, and are humble enough to recognize when they are amateurs.
Think about it this way. If you had to have surgery, would you rather the person holding the scalpel were a licensed surgeon, or just an average Joe who bought a video about how to do it? Of course, you would want the real surgeon, because that would give you the highest chance for success.
Whatever your reasons for considering professional dog training, you must come to terms with leaving your dog. Anytime you trust the well being of your fuzzy friend to someone else, you are taking a leap of faith. Will they be fed, watered, and cared for properly? Will they be punished if they make a mistake? This alone can cause you enough anxiety to rethink your decision.
All of a sudden, you can relate to a new mother leaving their child at daycare for the first time. By making sure that you have selected your trainer well, you can feel a degree of confidence that you are leaving your dog in good hands. The good news is that it may not be as hard as you think. Professional dog training often works out great for the dog.
Start with the trainer's credentials. In the United States, anyone with experience can put out their shingle and start a dog training business. The Certification Council for Professional Dog Trainers sets a high standard for evaluating a dog trainer. They focus on not only the applied science of professional dog training, but also on keeping that knowledge current.
In order to become certified, a designation known as CDTP-KA is awarded to those who demonstrate both knowledge and experience in dog training. Candidates must pass a knowledge test and prove that they have at least 300 hours of teaching dog classes, or training dogs in general. They also have a strict code of ethics, and a recommendation from a client, a veterinarian, and a colleague is required in order to sit for the exam. Once the trainer is certified, he or she can consider starting professional dog training.
In order to keep their designation once they have earned it, they must re-certify themselves every three years. A dog trainer can receive other certifications from various programs and educational institutions. The CDIP-KA is the only one that combines animal husbandry, teaching skills, and animal behavior knowledge.
Once you have verified the credentials, you should visit the facility. Check for cleanliness and see how the other dogs look. Check to see if there are vaccination requirements so that you know that your dog won't be exposed to contagious disease. Find out what they do for parasite prevention.
When starting professional dog training, make a list of your biggest fears and discuss them openly with the trainer. Ask what a typical day for your dog would entail. Question them about how specific situations are handled. Bring your dog along and watch how they interact together.
Peace in your house has a price. The cost will vary from trainer to trainer, but it is somewhat expensive at first glance. However, when you consider the exact dollar amount that you spend, spread over the life of your dog, it is a small amount to pay for rewarding relationship. At its finest, dog training is about the way that communicating with your companion will enrich your life. The investment that you make in professional dog training is a fantastic way to instill obedience into your pet, and still make it home in time to put your feet up.
You just learned something about professional dog training. Now what? Learn more at Dog Obedience Training Easy.
Irina is the owner and editor of http://dogobediencetrainingeasy.com where she provides dog training tips and resources to all dog lovers. She could not imagine herself without dogs. Irina believes obedience training plays a very important role for a strong and long relationship between the owners and their dogs.
Top rated Strategies to Preserve Your Dogs and Cats Entertained
Individuals generally think that if their pet has plenty of enjoy, h2o, foods and good health-related care then they may be set for lifestyle. Two goods we normally ignore are:
Giving them satisfactory bodily physical exercise, and,
Loads of mental issues to stimulate their brains.
These two variables can enhance their high quality of existence by leaps and bounds. ASPCA Animal Coach, Kristen Collins, touts that "Pets want jobs." Each dogs and cats possess a should be engaged and remain occupied. Consider that animals have been developed to get care of on their own by foraging or hunting for meals and shelter. Though our pets are actually domesticated, their vitality levels and normal instincts nonetheless exist. A lot more generally than not our pets are bored and invest the day laying close to awaiting us to return dwelling from operate. For this reason animals get into mischief although we're absent. They have to have simulation to take care of the overwhelming restless feeling. Significantly like small children, dogs and cats which might be left to their very own gadgets have to discover new approaches to entertain on their own. If you come across your cat or canine gnawing or scratching on furnishings or sneakers, consuming houseplants, tipping through the rubbish can or investing extreme quantities of time barking or meowing, then it can be time to get motion (or, think about taking motion earlier than these behaviors take place). Many distinctive workouts are suggested:
For Dogs:
Get transferring -- Nutritious dogs need to have a minimal of one particular hour of aerobic training daily. Kristen recommends breaking this into two separate 30 moment periods. Excellent methods to melt away off that vitality are jogging, enjoying on the canine park and swimming.
Games -- Mix physical exercise that has a lesson by involving your pet in structured games. These might be games including tug-of war or fetch. Most of these games educate your canine about impulse management and results in a closer partnership amongst the two of you. Fantastic objects for your recreation of fetch consist of things like an Air KONG squeaker tennis ball, a plain tennis ball, versatile Frisbee for dogs, Flying Squirrel fetch toy, or even only a beneficial previous fashioned stick.
Toys -- If your canine is property by yourself, hold him occupied with chew toys or the Kong, that is a puzzle-toy stuffed with foods.
For Cats:
Toys & Games -- Your kitty also requires a lot of work out. This can involve taking part in games or taking part in with toys. Good games involve fetch with compact balls or furry toys or even a sport of chase.
Activities -- Activities in your cat to do once they are house on your own can consist of bird watching, watching cat videos, shelling out time enjoying inside a secure outdoor location, or taking part in in packing containers or paper bags.
Training / Tricks -- Cats are amazingly intelligent creatures. Train your pet new tricks for instance rolling through, sitting up, or coming after you call them. Some cats can even be trained to use the toilet. Some guidelines to teaching your cat tricks include things like utilizing treats or even a clicker:
Treats -- The deal with method includes having your cat's focus together with the deal with. Allow them to smell and see the deal with. Will not increase the deal with up too excessive causing them to stand on their hind legs (unless, of course, that you are teaching them to stand). The moment your cat sits or stands, depending upon your desired response, praise your kitty and give him the deal with. Repeat this as necessary, do not hand through the deal with till your cat has carried out the desired outcome.
Clicker -- A clicker can actually make training happen faster. You do not must purchase a clicker for this specific purpose. Just discover a pen that can make a loud clicking noise or even a clicky cap off of an iced tea bottle. When your cat performs the desired behavior, click your pen then offer your pet a deal with. The cat will quickly understand the click usually means he did it appropriate. About the Author
Dog & cat clicker training tricks together - Honey the Great Dane & Muesli the Kitty
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Softball Fielding Tips – How to become a Better Fielder
Most spectators of softball games don’t realize the importance of the role of fielders in the game. Well, not at least they are thrown into the same situation and see what it really takes to become a good softball fielder.
For one, fielders should always be alert for flyballs because practically no one else can help them catch the ball but themselves.
And it doesn’t stop there. They still have to throw the ball to the nearest baseman to get a player tagged or to secure a base.
But if you’re a fielder yourself, I’m completely sure that you already understand the importance of your position. But there’s still room for improvement. That’s why here are some softball fielding tips for you and for everyone who wants to gain a greater appreciation for what’s needed to play this all important position.
Let’s begin:
1. You must refine your throwing mechanics and accuracy. If there’s one important skill that any fielder should have, that would be the ability to throw the ball correctly and into the right direction.
That’s why it’s important for you to always practice the correct throwing mechanics and work on your throwing accuracy.
The part about accuracy is obvious enough, but what about the proper throwing mechanics? The proper throwing mechanics help you throw the ball harder and farther with less effort. Also, you would minimize the wear and tear on the muscles involved at throwing and keep yourself from getting injured.
2. Be familiar with the position you’re playing. To be an effective fielder, you must know your job inside and out. You should know where to position yourself when the ball’s coming your way. But that’s not all. You should also know how to position yourself in particular game situations. Your hands must be in the correct position to catch the ball better, for example.
3. Pick the right glove and take care of it. For most players, knowing how to execute a drill is enough for them. But what they don’t know is the role that their equipment also plays in helping them play the game better.
For fielders, there’s no other equipment more important than their glove. If you’re a fielder, you should choose a glove that fits you just fine. A good-fitting glove is one that doesn’t slip when you use it, is small enough to help you catch the ball better, and is light enough to prevent limiting your performance, to name a few.
You also must take good care of your glove by making sure it maintains its original shape. You can do that by placing a ball in it and wrapping a shoelace around it when you’re not using it.
So to sum things up, you must refine your throwing mechanics and accuracy, familiarize yourself with your position, and pick the right glove and take care of it. These things will help you to become a better fielder.
But there are other useful softball fielding tips out there. To read all of them and other softball tips, check out my website at www.softballperformance.com.
I’ll see you there!
About the Author
Marc Dagenais, MHK, CSCS, is a Softball Peak Performance Coach that helps softball players and teams hit with more power, run faster, throw harder, become mentally tougher and be more dominant on the softball field.
The commonest method for breeding dogs is conformation. This ensures pups conform to the agreed standard of a certain registering body. Dogs that are registered with the AKC should meet the agreed standards and display no faults. Dogs produced as a result of conformation usually compete in shows to ascertain which breed is best. They also compete to determine the best dog without their own group.
When dogs are bred for conformation the breeder needs to take several factors into account; and these include things like physical characteristics, size, gait, bite, and coloring. Breeders in this category need to be particularly careful when it comes to choosing a specific breed. They must adhere to a strict breeding program, and the dogs involved must be excellent examples of their breed. Specimens displaying certain faults are not permitted to be used, and they tend to be spayed or neutered before being sent to dog homes.
Some dogs may be bred for performance, and will often take part in events such as flyball. Dogs selected for breeding often display fine athletic abilities. Structure and physical appearance are not so important in dogs bred for best performance. Dogs from different breeds are allowed to mate if they are agile and athletic. In that situation the breeders can only hope the pups will display the same qualities as their parents. One very good example is the breeding of a Jack Russell with a Border Collie. This produces a pup which in the sports community is known as a BorderJack.
You should always take your responsibilities as a breeder very seriously; and the same rule applies whether you are breeding for performance or conformation. This rule also applies to many other tasks and business dealings; you won’t get very far if you don’t behave responsibly.
As a breeder it is vitally important that you choose a dog which is the best in its breed as well as being free from faults or other genetic problems. This can only be done after an expensive evaluation period which involves a lot of tests and examinations. You must be willing to invest a lot of time and money into your dog breeding venture irrespective of whether it’s for business or personal reasons. You need to provide a good home for your male and female dogs before you start the breeding program.
You will need to pay close attention during the mating process because intervention is sometimes necessary. You should always behave in an ethical manner, especially when you consider that animal rights activists are often against breeding. Develop a good breeding program, and make sure you stick to it. Create a healthy environment for your dogs to live in, as well as for any pups they produce.
Do your research on the subject of conformation breeding, and find out which breeds of dog are suitable for the program. You should also do extensive research before you start performance breeding. Either way, extensive research will help to ensure good results. You should seek as much expert help as possible in order to avoid future problems. Check the AKC’s standards, as well as other organizations, and make sure you comply with them. Don’t hesitate to ask the experts for help and advice, especially if you're a beginner.
Dog breeding needs a high level of commitment. The responsibilities are enormous, and can be difficult to cope with. Only consider dog breeding as a career if it is your passion.
Dog Obedience Training Exercises: Developing A Well-Trained Dog
Have you seen the movie "Marley and Me"? If you have, then you've seen how annoying Marley can be. He's the type of dog that any dog trainer will not be too happy to meet. He pees everywhere, chews on the living room set, and jumps on people. Actually, his owner, portrayed by Owen Wilson, even brought him to a dog training class to turn him into a well-trained dog. Unfortunately, the dog trainer easily gave up on him because he was the worst dog she had ever seen. He made a total chaos in the class, so he was not allowed to finish the course. That was kind of frustrating on the part of his owners. Now, if you have a dog like Marley, what will you do? Why not try these dog obedience training exercises to develop a well-trained dog?
Sit
You have to note that your dog must always sit at your left side with his shoulder at your left knee. To make him obey the sit command, you have to first fold the leash in your right hand. Then, call your dog's name and command sit. Push down on his hindquarters using your left hand and jerk up on the leash with your hand. When he does the sitting position right, praise him and give him a treat.
Heeling on Leash
When walking your dog, his right shoulder should be about even with your left knee. Once the leash turns loose, simply call out your dog's name and give the heel command. Walk forward as soon as you can and then give a hard jerk on the leash. Do not drag your dog when you do this. Once you jerked him into position, praise him with words like "Good boy!"
About Turn
When you turn away from your dog, do it to your right to reverse your direction. And as you do it, make sure that you keep your eyes on your dog and then give several short and quick jerks.
Stay
To make your dog stay where he is, command him to be in a sitting position. Afterwards, hold up your hand with the flat of your palm facing him, then tell him to stay. If he does, again give him praise but if not, put him back in position and start again.
Down
Just like in the stay command, you can make your dog obey the down command by putting him in a sitting position first. With him sitting, give the down command, then slowly push on his shoulders and wobble him off balance at the same time. But there's another way to do this. You can also place the leash between your sole and shoe heel. Then, give the down command and pull up on the leash.
So these are just some of the dog obedience training exercises that you can do to develop a well-trained dog. At first, they may seem difficult. But once you tried them and see effective results, you will realize how rewarding these dog obedience exercises could be not only for your dog but also for you.
Get Rid of your Pup's Bad Attitude with Puppy Training
You've recently got the cutest puppy ever and you can't help but be a doting pet owner. But when your pet turns out to be misbehaving, he or she is not that cute anymore. Subjecting your pet to puppy training could be the best thing that you could ever do for your pet and this article will tell you why.
What exactly is dog obedience training as it is more popularly called? Basically, it is a way of teaching dogs how to follow instructions, tricks, and other skills while making use of some tried and tested training techniques. These could include behavioral training techniques, house training, or protection training.
Most trainers suggest that dogs undergo training early on in their lives, but that doesn't mean that you cannot give older dogs training. In fact, these trainers can teach dogs of any age, it is just a matter of using different techniques depending on a dog's age.
Dog training has a lot of good benefits and here are a few of them:
1. It creates an excellent dog-owner relationship. You and your dog will take the journey together so it is a great bonding moment between you and your pet.
2. It basically creates opportunities for you and your pet dog to communicate well. Isn't it great to know the meaning of some of the actions by dog?
3. Having your dog undergo puppy training is the perfect way to prevent your dog from developing unacceptable behavior or bad habits.
4. Obedience training always proves to be beneficial for new pet owners. The training helps your new pet dog learn what his or her owner expects from him or her. Training ensures a healthy relationship between the owner and the pet.
5. It is always nice to see a dog learn new tricks, like picking up your morning newspaper or learning where he or she is supposed to pee. Nothing is more fun than to show off your pet to your friends perform some interesting tricks.
It is sad to know that there are dogs out there that have never undergone the proper dog training. There are some pet owners who have failed to recognize the importance of giving their dogs the proper training they need. Dogs, like humans, can be frustrated, too – not knowing what they need to or what their owners wants from them can take its toll of your pet, as well. A happy pet makes a happy owner!
Dog Obedience Training Success Results to Both You and Your Pet Happy
Dog obedience training refers to the many methods for training dogs such as crate training, use of motivational approach, clicker training, collar and leash training. The purpose of these dog training programs is to build a deeper and more rewarding relationship between a pet owner and his pooch. Regardless of the breed of dog you may own, you will benefit from the right training method in terms of the peace of mind that you will get from a healthy relationship with your dog. It is also beneficial to your pet dog because a dog obedience training success helps him to understand what is expected of him. Elements of a Dog Obedience Training Success A proper dog obedience training method must aim to build a harmonious relationship between you and your pet. It must help you communicate your expectations to your pet and it must teach him how to respond to these expectations. It must reward proper behavior and help him in changing habits that are not acceptable. An effective dog obedience training must also teach him to know your voice so that you can readily give him simple commands like "sit", "stay" or "come." If you want your pet to be friendlier towards other people and other dogs, an obedience training will give him the common rules to achieve this. It will help him overcome behaviors such as excessive barking, dog food aggression, digging or chewing that are improper conduct to humans and to other dogs as well. Benefits of a Dog Obedience Training Success Dog obedience training success is fun and easy, offering you the benefit of a more harmonious relationship with your pet. It will help you communicate the fact to your dog that you are the leader of the pack and you are there to be followed and at the same time to care for him. A proper training will also help your dog know simple rules which will help him prevent confusion which is really the result of poor communication. Your dog will also enjoy a a more carefree existence with you if he is made to understand your rules. This will result to him more confident and more relaxed in his dealings with you and other people in his environment. Once your dog is trained well, you can give him more independence, relieved that he can be trusted more. You would also worry less about unacceptable dog conduct, as it becomes clearer to him that he is expected to obey and follow rules.
About the Author
Gary Foley is a journalist who writes for sites on a lot of niches. To find out more on <a href="http://dogtrainingsuccess.com.au/canberra">dog trainers canberra</a> please go here
The Assyrian Army, from around the time of Ashurnasirpal II (about 850 BC) organised the first known Corps of Engineers. These elite specialists operated his siege and bridge trains and also provided mobility support for his chariots. They were the first equipped with advanced iron pioneer tools and are credited with the first known use of offensive mine warfare. This occurred as late as 880 BC and consisted of tunnels (mines) driven beneath or through the foundations of walls and fortifications. These mines could then be used by soldiers to gain access to the interior of a fortified area or, later, they were used to create a breach large enough for a full-scale attack by collapsing a section of a wall. This was done by excavating a chamber under the wall while bracing the ceiling with timber supports. These supports were then burned, which caused the collapse of the chamber and the structure above it. Attacking soldiers then assaulted through the resulting breach.
Many such mines have been mentioned in history, most notably the successful mines used by Alexander the Great and his engineer Diades at the sieges of Halicarnassus (334 BC) and Gaza (332 BC) as well as Julius Caesar and his engineer Mamurra during the siege of Marseilles in 49 BC. Although effective mining and other combat engineering skills were critical to the military successes of both of these great leaders, these are frequently neglected or forgotten by historians.
EXPLOSIVE MINES
Tunnel mines
The advent of the capability to manufacture and explode black powder (in Europe this occurred in the 14th century) resulted in the next major improvement in military mining. The surprise and effectiveness of tunnel mines was significantly increased by exploding large charges of black powder at the end of the galleries driven under fortifications. The first recorded use of such a 'mine' in Europe was in 1403 during a war between Pisa and Florence, when Florentine Domenico di Matteo attempted to explode a charge in a forgotten walled up passage in the walls surrounding Pisa. The plan failed when the defenders found the charge and neutralized it before it could explode. Leonardo Da Vinci, while serving as a military engineer for Ludovico Sforza around 1500, took an interest in mine warfare, (in fact, his invention of the wheellock in 1493 led directly to the first European- made target activated mine, the fladdermine). The first recorded important success with explosive underground mines occurred at Castel Nuovo in Naples, on 27 November 1495 when a mine planned by Francesco di Giorgio blasted a breach in the west wall of the French held barbican, enabling Argonese soldiers to capture the entire fortress by 8 December. The shockwaves from this successful attack reverberated across Europe as military engineers began to modify their fortresses to withstand this new threat. This was done by lowering and thickening the curtain walls and adding subterranean countermine galleries as done at Salses in Rousillon in the early 1500s. However, for a long time, black powder was a scarce and expensive commodity and the less spectacular method of burning out the timber supports beneath the wall continued into at least the 17th century. Eventually, the continued slow evolution of the cannon and underground mining tactics eventually forced the high castle walls of the Middle Ages to be replaced by low-walled bastioned fortresses, one of the first examples of which is the fortress at Sarzanello in Italy, from around 1497.
In his famous work on siege warfare (published in 1740), King Louis XIV's engineer Sebatien Le Prestre de Vauban (French Marshal, 1630-1707) codified the principles of military mining. These principals remained valid well into the nineteenth century. Vauban stated that the number and locations of demolition chambers were dictated by the type of fortification. These mines were defined by the depth and size of the charge as follows:
For depths greater than 3 m, it was called a mine
For depths less than 3 m underground, it was called a 'fougasse' (or contact mine)
When used as a 'countermine' against an enemy mine, it was called a 'camouflet'
When intended to destroy an entire fortification (using 2,500 kg of powder or more), it was called 'pressure balls' (globes de compression).
According to Vauban's tables, explosive charges for mining could range up to 12,100 kg. The purpose of the mine was not only to cause destruction, but also - with the rocks and soil ejected - to form an earthen ramp across any moat or dry ditch that the assault troops could use to gain access to the breach. Moreover, the demolition often came as a surprise to the defending forces, causing panic and confusion among them.
Tunnel mines were very time-consuming to employ. Military mining during a siege could last 30 days or more. Furthermore, specialists were required for the job. During the Middle Ages, coal miners were hired. It was not until standing armies were raised by the absolute monarchs of the 17th century that formal mining units were formed: 1673 in France, 1683 in Austria, 1742 in Prussia and 1772 in Britain (the Company of Soldier Artificers). Their work demanded courage and special caution. Lack of oxygen and possible flooding made their jobs difficult. Typically about 18 miners and 36 unskilled workmen were employed in three 8-hour shifts to construct an assault mine.
Against the bastioned fortresses of Vauban's time, mining was normally begun as soon as sappers had completed the last parallel in front of the glacis of a fortress or fortified town. The besieging miners then dug galleries, about 1.25 m high and 1 m wide, lined with wood. These had to be dug in a 'serpintine' fashion or with sharp turns in the direction of the tunnel to prevent back flash. Once the miners had reached the site selected for the explosion, they dug out the blast hole perpendicular to the previous direction of the gallery. This mine chamber was then filled with the amount of black powder determined by the siege engineer.
To ignite the mine, an 'ignition sausage' was laid from the mine chamber to the point of ignition (minenherd). This primitive fuze was a tube made of linen and filled with granulated powder. The fuze was laid in a 6 cm wide wooden duct, and covered with a board to protect it from moisture on the floor of the mine gallery or other damage. The gallery was finally tamped (sealed) with earth, over a length of 6 to 10 m. The miner ignited the fuze at the appointed time, and then retreated quickly.
Immediately after the explosion, the besiegers could assault the fortress or, as the situation required, extend their sap trenches into the crater and reinforce them with gabions. If necessary, further mines were used to take the palisades of the covered way and the supporting walls of the counterscarp or the scarp thus facilitating entry into the fortress.
While working in the tunnels, attention had to be paid at all times to listening tunnels and the countermines of the defender. The attackers tried to deceive the listening posts by constructing phony galleries, in which workers produced a lot of noise, called a 'noise gallery'
As they became available, military engineers incorporated the latest technology from civilian mining, including more efficient explosives: nitrocellulose in 1845 (Christian Schoenbein, Germany), dynamite in 1866 (Alfred Nobel, Sweden), picric acid in 1871 and TNT in 1902 (C Hausermann, Germany). Nevertheless, many engineers continued to prefer the 'heaving' effect of the slower detonating black powder. Other improvements include galvanic (electrical) ignition (1850s), and forced-air ventilation systems. During the First World War, both sides employed new mechanical tunnel boring machines that were developed for commercial coal mining in addition to traditional pick and shovel techniques.
This type of tunnel mining has continued sporadically into the modern era and was used by Napoleon at Acre (1799), the Crimean War (Sevasol, 1854-1855), General Grant's men in the American Civil War (Vicksburg in 1863 and Petersburg in 1864), the Russo-Japanese War (Port Arthur, 1904), the First World War (Western Front and the Isonzo Front), the Second World War (Russian Front) and the French-Indochina War (Dien Bien Phu, 1954). In fact, the recent (1996) successful rescue of the hostages held by terrorists in the Japanese Ambassador's residence in Peru was initiated through the use of underground tunnel mines.
Fougasse
The defensive use of explosive mines followed soon after their introduction as offensive instruments. Initially, defensive mines were a battlefield expedient used in the same manner as offensive mines, that is, tunnels were driven underneath hostile siege engines and batteries, vulnerable outworks likely to be captured by the attackers, expected breach sites, or other emplacements. Later, these evolved in to preplanned devices emplaced as part of a fortress's permanent defenses in peacetime. These made their first appearance in Italy and Sicily by 1530. Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, stated that 'Fougasses formed into a T like mine, in order to blow up the same place three times, can be added to the entrenchments. Their use is admirable, nothing fortifies a position so strongly nor does more to ward off attackers.' These fougasses were simple black powder devices that were first developed for the defence of permanent fortifications. They were intended to be exploded in the face of an enemy assault. A black powder charge was placed in a chamber excavated in the face of a fortification (firing horizontally) or in front of it (firing vertically). The chamber was then packed with a large amount of fragments (normally just rocks or scrap iron) and called a stone fougasse or filled with explosive artillery shells and called a shell fougasse. If properly emplaced, a horizontally fired fougasse functioned as a crude claymore mine. Fougasses were command detonated by manually igniting a powder train from a protected position at the appropriate time. The fougasse suffered from several defects, not the least of which was the vulnerability of its black powder to the elements: even moderate dampness could render a fougasse inoperative. Also, because of the delay and uncertain burn time of its fuse, it was very difficult to have it detonate at the optimum time. However, in the right circumstances they could cause a large number of casualties, as occurred during the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz and Santander in the Duke of Wellington's Peninsular Campaign of the Napoleonic Wars.
A pair of fougasses were employed by George Washington's engineer Francois de Fleury in October 1777 against the 1500 Hessians of Colonel Carl von Donop's regiment at Fort Mercer, New Jersey on the east bank of the Delaware River during the American Revolution. During the War of 1812, an American ammunition chest accidentally exploded in the midst of a British attack on Fort Erie, Canada. This caused the attack to collapse and the resulting fear of 'additional' fougasses was enough to dissuade further British attacks. The Mexicans also attempted to employ six of them on the approaches to Chapultepec during the Mexican-American War of 1845. Fougasses are still occasionally employed by irregular forces, such as the Viet Cong, Central American guerillas and Bosnians who lack access to modern land mines in sufficient quantity.
Self-contained mines
Military engineers in China produced and employed the first self-contained explosive Anti-Personnel (AP) mines against Kublai Khan's Mongol invaders in 1277. These mines were manufactured in many shapes and sizes. They could be command detonated or activated with either a pressure (probably based on a match) or pull firing device (a forerunner of the flintlock mechanism). However, these mines did not gain lasting use in the Orient and were largely forgotten by the time Western explorers arrived on the scene in the 17th century.
The introduction of Da Vinci's wheellock in the early 1500's was the basis for the first target activated anti-personnel mine in the West. This was the Fladdermine, which was developed by Samuel Zimmermann of Augsburg in 1573. It consisted of one or more pounds of black powder in a ceramic pot with iron fragments imbedded in it. This device was buried at a shallow depth in the glacis of a fortress and was actuated by somebody stepping on it or activating a tripwire strung low along the ground. This released a wheellock igniter, which fired the main charge. Like the fougasse before it, these devices required frequent maintenance to be reliable because they were highly vulnerable to dampness. Therefore, they were used primarily around fixed fortifications. For example, after a strategic miscalculation in 1761, Frederick the Great found himself and his Prussian Army of 57,000 in an awkward position with 60,000 Russians to his front and 72,000 Austrians to his rear. Consequently, he prepared his famous camp at Bunzelwitz to cover Breslau, which "was within a range of hills, protected on three sides by streams; six salient points in its circuit were fortified with bastions, the fires from which commanded all the intermediate ground, which was further strengthened by flèches, forming a broken curtain between adjacent bastions. Abattis, trous-de-loups, fougasses, and other obstacles surrounded the camp, and more than 180 pieces of artillery defended the approaches." As part of this effort, Frederick and his French-born engineer Lefebvre directed the emplacement of 182 fladderminen, 48 of which were placed under Frederick's 24 big artillery batteries (two per battery). Frederick intended to destroy these in case of capture, noting that "mines and being blown into the air are always very terrible to the common man." Prussian pioneers planned to use 'ignition sausages'to detonate some of their improvised fladderminen from 50 paces away. Intimidated by these defenses, the Russians and Austrians withdrew. As a result of the tremendous effort that Frederick dedicated to good combat engineering in this case, his army survived.
Although explosive shells (as opposed to solid shot) were used early (1221 in China), their unreliability led to them falling out of favour except for use with mortars. The reintroduction of explosive shells in the West in the 1700s, combined with the appearance of the percussion cap which was invented by Reverend Alexander Forsythe of Scotland in 1814, made possible the next important step in the development of reliable mines by greatly improving the water resistance of the device. This occurred for the first time in battle when Confederate soldiers under the leadership of General Gabriel Raines improvised the first of this new type of AP mine from artillery shells at Redoubt No 4 near Yorktown, Virginia during the campaign of 1862. By the end of the Civil War, the Confederates had emplaced thousands of 'land torpedoes'around Richmond, Charleston, Mobile, Savannah and Wilmington producing hundreds of casualties. Their use was advocated by such famous soldiers as Robert E Lee, John Mosby and J E B Stuart.
As late as 1960, five Raines torpedoes were found near Mobile, Alabama.
Self-contained antipersonnel mines were employed by the British during several of their colonial wars, including the Zulu War (1879), the Sudan (1884), and the Boer War (1901). Examples included command detonated, tripwire, or pressure-activated types. In the Boer War, they were used to protect railways and deny fording sites to the Boers. At the siege of Port Arthur, during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, the Russians also employed a variety of landmines, including fougasses, electric-command, electric vibration, and pressure fuzed mines. The Japanese attempted to breach these minefields with volunteer suicide squads that were expected to force a passage by sacrificing their own bodies. In event, on approaching the minefield, the volunteers found that heavy rains had exposed many of the mines.
As discussed earlier, the period from 1865 to 1914 also witnessed the introduction of more powerful military explosives, resulting in a significant increase in lethality. The black powder shells of the American Civil War period had burst into only 2 to 5 fragments and those of the Franco-Prussian War into 20 to 30. By the First World War, a 76 mm high-explosive shell (which first appeared in 1886) produced about 1,000 high-velocity fragments.
The improvised German 'Tretmine' (step-on mine) was the next mine of this type to appear, seeing limited service in the First World War. Indeed, soldiers on both sides frequently improvised explosive, tripwire activated devices that were integrated into their wire entanglements early in the war. The Allies also made extensive use of mines and boobytraps to cover their withdrawl from Gallipoli. Nevertheless, the near domination of infantry by artillery and the machine gun meant that the need for standard, manufactured AP mines received little attention from the warring powers. It was not until the Second World War that anti-personnel mines gained real recognition. They have been a facet of almost every conflict since.
Fragmenting anti-personnel mines
Three types of fragmenting AP mines emerged from the Second World War: bounding, directional claymore and simple fragmenting mines, sometimes known as 'stake mines' Examples are shown in the Generic types of mine and booby trap entries at the beginning of this section.
Bounding anti-personnel mines
Although the Dutch engineer Baron Minno van Cöhorn had include a sketch of an improvised command detonated bounding anti-personnel mine, called a 'shell fougasse' (which he called a 'Boitte a Grenade') in his classic 1706 treatise titled Nouvelle Fortification, modern manufactured examples of this type did not make their combat debut in the west until the early days of the Second World War when French patrols of the German West Wall (Siegfried Line) began to take unexplained casualties. These casualties were attributed to a device the French dubbed 'the silent soldier' the famous German 'S'mine which was introduced in 1935. Indeed, the S-Mine 35 was reported to have played a critical role in defeating the French attack into the Saarland in 1939. This "secret weapon" apparently made quite an impression on the French and British who rapidly developed their own versions, the M-1939 and the Shrapnel Mine No. 2 respectively. A French engineer who reached the US after the fall of France, helped the US develop a similar mine (the M2), which used a 60 mm mortar round as its bounding munition, however, the M2 proved deficient in combat. Consequently, the US developed their M16 directly from the German S-mine after the war. This type is still widely used and is sometimes referred to as a "Bouncing Betty." The most recent improvement in the technology of the bounding AP mine is the scatterable US 'ADAM' fielded in the early 1980s.
Directional anti-personnel mines
Directional AP mines are descended from the early directional type of stone fougasse that was used for centuries in Europe. Two types of modern directional antipersonnel mines have evolved, one disk-shaped, the other rectangular. Under the guidance of the physicists Franz Rudolf Tomanek and Hubert Schardin, the Germans were the first to develop disk-shaped directional antipersonnel mines that they called "trench mines" (grabenminen), based on knowledge gained in the development of shaped charges. However, it was too late to see combat in the Second World War.
By 1947, in co-operation with Schardin, the French had fielded several types of directional fragmentation mines. Consequently, the French employed them in combat first, during the Indochina War against the Vietminh. Apparently, these directional mines made an impression on the Vietminh as they produced their own versions (known as the MDH, with at least nine variants); these were used by their successors, the Viet Cong, as used against the Americans as early as 1965.
It was the Americans who developed the directional AP mine into its familiar modern form. This was done in response to the human wave attacks of the Chinese Communist Forces (CCF) during the Korean War in the early 1950s. By the time the Americans finished the development of the new mine in 1953 it was placed in production, but once again it was too late to see combat, this time in Korea. However, the M18 claymore, named after the famous Scottish broadsword, first saw combat in Vietnam in 1961. The claymore mine has proven to be highly effective and has been widely copied. It appears that the Soviets developed their directional MON series of mines from American and Vietnamese examples, with the MON-50 and MON-90 based on the American claymore design and the MON-100 and MON-200 based on variants of the Viet Cong MDH series. These Soviet mines did not enter service until 1970.
Simple fragmenting anti-personnel mines
Stake-mounted fragmenting AP mines have been employed since Russo-Finnish War of 1939 when the badly outnumbered Finns improvised them from grenades. During the Winter War, the Finns were able to fight the Russians to a standstill along the Mannerheim Line in November 1939. During World War I, (Russian) mine hardware also underwent further development. To strengthen wire obstacles, Russian combat engineers used fragmentation (shrapnel) mines with pull-action fuzes. The mine consisted of a metal cylinder with double walls, between which pieces of iron were placed. Inside the inner compartment were the explosive charge and the fuze, which was triggered by pulling the arming pin out of it. The mine was attached to a tree or a bush, or to a peg driven into the ground, with the trip wires of the arming pin attached to other pegs. Stake-mounted fragmenting AP mines were also employed in the Russo-Finnish War of 1939 where the heavily outnumbered Finns improvised them from grenades. During this war, the Finns were able to fight the Russians to a standstill along the Mannerheim Line in November 1939. Such stake mines were frequently employed during the Second World War and have continued in use to the present day without significant changes to their design. The best-known example is the Soviet-made POMZ-2, which appeared in the Second World War and remains a common mine around the world.
Blast anti-personnel mines
Blast AP mines are descended from artillery shells with sensitive fuzes, vertical fougasses and the large underground mines that were dug under fortified positions and then exploded. It is unclear which mine should be considered the first modern blast AP mine. However, the Soviet-made PMD-6, PMK-40 or the British-made 'Ointment Box'mines are likely candidates.
CHEMICAL MINES
The British-developed Livens Projector (a 'projectile fougasse'or 'earth mortar') was first employed in 1917 and is arguably the first chemical mine. The Germans also developed and employed what the Allies dubbed the 'Yperite Mine'in 1918. It was used to contaminate a bunker with mustard agent ('Yperite' to deny the use of the bunkers to the advancing Allies. This device normally used a delay action fuze, but it could be set as a target activated booby trap. The first modern chemical mine, the Spruh-buchse 37 (Bounding Gas Mine 37), was developed and produced by Germany during the Second World War. It normally had a mustard agent fill but it was never used in combat. The Chechen rebels are reported to have improvised large command-detonated chemical fougasses, by burying railroad tank cars filled with toxic chemicals (ammonia and/or chlorine mixed with oil) around Grozny in their recent (1999) conflict with the Russians. Except for the introduction of nerve agent fills, no significant improvements have occurred in the design of chemical mines since the Second World War.
FLAME MINES
Although the existence of 'liquid Fire'and 'Greek Fire'were reported by Aineias the Tactician as early as the 4th century BC, the first flame mine did not appear until the Confederates reportedly emplaced improvised examples on James Island near Charleston in 1864. These may have been based on shells containing 'Greek Fire'that the Union had fired earlier into the city, some of which undoubtedly failed to function and were put to use by the Confederates. During the Second World War, the Russians introduced a tripwire activated static flame-thrower at the Battle of Kursk.
These were quickly copied by the Germans as the Abwerflammenwerfer 42 (Defensive Flamethrower 42); more than 50,000 were made, with some used as part of the Atlantic Wall. Improvised flame mines, sometimes called 'flame fougasse' were employed by the US in Korea and Vietnam, and are still occasionally encountered. The US developed two modern flame mines, the X-200 (used in the Korean War) and the XM-54; 200 of the XM-54 mines were shipped to Vietnam for evaluation in August 1968, where some were used operationally. The XM-54 was a bounding mine filled with 15.3 pounds of plasticised white phosphorus; it could be armed with a pressure or tripwire activated fuze, or set up for command-detonation.
BOOBY TRAPS
The first explosive booby traps were employed by the Chinese against the Mongols in 1277. The first appearance of explosive booby traps in the West occurred during the Seminole War of 1840. These were also employed in a limited quantity by the Confederates during the American Civil War where they employed a variety of devices including pull-firing switches, timer run down fuzes, and coal or wood 'torpedoes'which exploded when burned in the firebox of a boiler. With the combat debut of reliable German mechanical anti-handling devices at the beginning of the Second World War, the booby trap reached full maturity and has been a facet of almost every conflict since. The development of the booby trap has continued with the highly sophisticated electronic devices, known as 'Superquicks,' manufactured by the former Yugoslav Republic (see Special Electronic Fuzes entry).
ANTI-VEHICLE MINES
During the American Civil War, the Confederates developed and employed pressure fuzed railway mines, destroying at least eight heavily loaded trains in Tennessee and Georgia. These railway mines also resulted in the first improvised countermine vehicle at Fredericksburg, Virginia in May 1862, where Union General Hermann Haupt had a flat car pushed slowly ahead of a locomotive to detonate any mines in its path. In response to a British invasion, the Dutch Boers used railroad mines improvised by a young German named Carl Cremer from the components of captured Martini-Henry rifles and about fifty sticks of dynamite. This device proved quite successful, wrecking a number of British trains.
Anti-tank mines (pressure fuzed)
German combat engineers improvised the first Anti-Tank (AT) mines during the First World War in response to the appearance of British- and French-made tanks starting in September 1916. Initially, they used existing artillery and mortar shells with sensitive fuzes. They also employed command-detonated mines; these are arguably the first full-width attack anti-tank mines. These earliest AT mines were scattered at random to reinforce wire obstacles and anti-tank ditches in front of the trench lines. The Germans also began to manufacture the 'Flachmine 17' anti-tank mine in 1916 and produced almost 3 million before the Armistice of 1918. These normally consisted of a wooden box weighing about 12 lb and filled with 18 × 200 g explosive blocks. These were placed in boxes approximately 20 × 30 × 5 cm and were concealed about 25 cm deep. Detonation was caused by one of 4 'spring percussion lighters.' It could function automatically as the tank passed over it or by command detonation (which was greatly facilitated by the use of electric detonators which first appeared in 1900). By the end of the war, the German pioneers had developed row mining techniques and accounted for approximately 15 per cent of US tank casualties during the battles of St Mihiel, Catalet-Bony, Selle and Meuse/Argonne. The British also produced at least two varieties of AT mines: one based on a pipe bomb and the other on a bombard shell. In the early twenties, the first Soviet anti-tank mines (then called fougasses), went into development. In 1924, the EZ mine, developed by Yegorov and Zelinskiy, went into service. It had a 1 kg charge, enough to break tracks of the tanks of that time. Finally, in 1929, the Germans introduced the first in a series of modern pressure fuzed anti-tank mines: the Tellermine 29. The Tellermines formed the basis for many of the AT mines in use to date, such as the Yugoslav TMM-1 detailed in a separate section.
Full-width attack mines
The Russian AKS, a tilt-rod actuated blast AT mine was probably the first true full-width AT mine; this was used on the Russian Front during the Second World War. However, it was the Germans who developed the first modern full-width attack mines toward the end of the Second World War. These were the Hohl-Sprung Mine 4672 and the Panzer Stab 43 Mine which employed a tilt-rod fuze and shaped charge warhead. Although these never saw combat, these mines represented a significant improvement in mine technology: shaped charges combined with full-width attack fuzes have proven extremely effective. Their greater effective coverage enables the emplacing unit to get the same effect with significantly fewer mines per km of front. Additionally, this type of mine often results in fatalities to crew members, decreasing the willingness of combat vehicle crews to 'bull through'a mined area. Another interesting development occurred on the Eastern Front when the Germans pressed magnetic-influence fuzed anti-ship mines (either SM or TM series) into service in the Carpathians, thus introducing the first magnetic-influenced fuzed anti-tank mine to ground combat.
The French were probably first to field a modern full-width attack AT mine when the Model 1948 AT mine entered service in 1948. The first magnetic-fuzed anti-tank mine with a shaped-charge or explosively formed penetrator to enter service appears to have been the US RAAMS mine, in the early 1980s.
Side attack mines
The advent of shoulder fired AT weapons, beginning with the US Bazooka and German Panzerfaust in 1942, led to the development of side attack AT mines. The first improvised side attack AT mines were employed by the Germans and Soviets during the Second World War. These were based on the Panzerfaust (forerunner of the modern RPG-7). The early Soviet-made side attack AT mine was called the LMG and is reported to still be in service with the North Koreans.
Since the Second World War, two basic types of side attack anti-tank mines have evolved, one using a rocket propelled HEAT (High Explosive Anti-Tank) round and the other using an EFP (Explosively Formed Penetrator). However, some of the larger directional mines, such as the Soviet-made MON-100 and MON-200, produce fragments of sufficient mass and velocity to threaten lightly armoured personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles. The US manufactured and fielded one of the first modern side attack anti-tank mines, the M24, which was based around a 3.5 in HEAT rocket.
Chechen rebels have reportedly improvised side attack mines from RPG launchers during their recent conflict (2000) with the Russians. This type of mine is difficult to employ due to its large size and the fact that it must be emplaced above ground.
Wide area mines
Arguably the first wide area mine, defined as a mine that sends a munition towards its target, was the Russian 'dog mine'of the Second World War. The Russian 'dog mine'consisted of a dog with an explosive charge, fuzed with a tiltrod-activated firing device, strapped to its back. The dogs were trained to run under tanks, thus activating the explosive charge. However, the Russian 'dog mine'was not particularly effective, as the dogs could not reliably tell the difference between German and Russian tanks. One of the first modern wide area mines was the US Navy's Mark 60 'CAPTOR'mine which used an acoustic sensor to launch a Mark 46 Torpedo, which entered service in 1979. Advanced wide area landmines are only now beginning to emerge in western Europe, Russia and the USA. For example, the US M93 'Hornet'has been recently fielded in limited quantities.
MINE EMPLACEMENT SYSTEMS
The Germans conducted some of the first successful tests of air-droppable seamines in 1931. However, the first scatterable landmine laying systems used in combat were the Italian Thermos Bomb (also called Anti-Personnel Bomb Manzolini) which was scattered by aircraft and was used fairly extensively in North Africa 1940-1942) and the German SD-2B Schmetterling (butterfly) which was first used against the Poles in September 1939. Both types came with anti-disturbance and time delay fuzing. There was also a cluster bomb version of the SD-2 that had airburst or impact fuzing. It was employed in Italy, Russia, Tunisia and UK. It was copied by the US and was later dropped by the USAF in Korea and Vietnam. Krupp, the famous steel and weapons manufacturer, in Germany also developed, but did not field, the first mechanical mineplanter which was towed behind a Tiger tank. The US Air Force also developed a number of scatterable mines and used them in the Vietnam War. The first fielded scatterable AT mine was the US-made M-34 AT mine that was scattered by the helicopter-mounted M-56 system, which appeared in 1975.
COUNTERMINE
The first identified use of an explosive countermine occurred when John Vrano used black powder in a countermine against the Turks during the siege of Belgrade in 1433, just 30 years after the first European explosive mine was emplaced at Pisa. In this application, the intent was to dig down close to the enemy's mine gallery and emplace/explode a charge that would collapse his tunnel and kill the miners. By the 1530's, Anonio da Sangallo had built the prototype for the fortress countermine system under Porta Ardeatina (also called Porta S. Sebastiano) in Rome. During the Thirty Years War, defenders released poisonous antimony gas into the besiegers' tunnels to kill the miners. The use of this type of explosive countermine was continued into the First World War.
Manual breaching
The first deliberate breach of a minefield was made by Colonel Edward Serrel's 1st New York Volunteer Engineers at Fort Wagner, South Carolina in August and September of 1863 during the American Civil War. Here, the sappers literally dug their way through the minefield using traditional siege warfare techniques.
Mechanical and Electronic breaching
Modern countermine equipment first appeared at the end of the First World War as the British attempted to develop the first true mine rollers as a countermeasure to protect their tanks from the increasingly common German anti-tank mines. The French appear to have been next and developed the first plough-equipped tank based on a Renault FT-17 tank in 1918. Although British Royal Engineers had improvised the earliest example of an electronic mine detector in Palestine in 1932, only the Germans, French, Russians, and Italians entered the Second World War with metallic mine detectors. Indeed, during the inter-war years, the French developed the first vehicle-mounted electronic mine detector. Plough tanks would not see combat until the British 'Bullshorn'Plough was used by the 79th Armoured Division on Sword Beach on D-Day.
Major Gifford le Q Martel, who had been a staff officer for General Elles, senior British tank commander during the First World War, explored the possibility of producing mine rollers and assault bridges which could be used by armoured vehicles. Three special tank battalions, one of them commanded by Martel, were formed at Christchurch in Hampshire in 1918. Each contained Mk V tanks that were designed to accept either mine rollers or to push/pull mobile bridges. However, the armistice came before these units became operational. Mine rollers would not see their combat debut until March 1940, when the Russians used them to help breach the Mannerheim Line. The highly successful Russian Mugalev roller was developed based on this experience and first saw action in 1942. The Mugalev Roller is the base of most modern rollers such as those currently used by former Warsaw Pact countries, Israel, and the USA.
The idea for a mineclearing flail, first pursued by Abraham S J du Toit, was also developed by a South African Engineer Lieutenant Colonel named Mill Colman. He got the idea while watching a tracked vehicle drive by with a length of wire wrapped around its sprockets, with each revolution of the sprocket; it would hit the ground hard. This idea was then developed in the 8th Army's GHQ workshop in August 1942. A total of 25 of these flails, called 'Scorpions'first saw combat during the Second Battle of El Alamein (October/November 1942), where they were employed in several of the British breaching efforts. Eventually, the flail and many other specialised armoured vehicles were consolidated by the British in their 79th Armoured Division. This division, under the command of General Percival Hobart, was probably the most advanced combat engineering organisation ever developed and was called 'Hobart's Funnies'. Flails remain in service in the UK and are the forerunner of the highly advanced German Keiler system.
Explosive breaching
The Bangalore torpedo was invented by Captain McClintock of the Bengal, Bombay and Madras Sappers and Miners in 1912. It took its name from the region of India where it was developed. The Bangalore torpedo was developed to counter the problem posed by the rise of barbed wire obstacles during the Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. The original torpedo was a 5.5 m length of pipe filled with 27.2 kg of dynamite. Early in the Second World War, it was found to be effective at clearing a path through minefields. This device remains a standard item in the inventory of many armies to this day. Experimentation on a system that would use a rifle grenade or small rocket to deploy a length of detonating cord were begun by the USA in 1944, but have not been particularly successful.
The 'big brother' of the Bangalore torpedo, the demolition 'Snake'was first developed by a Canadian combat engineer named Major A T MacLean of the 11th Field Company starting in October 1941. It was originally nicknamed the 'Worthington Wiggler' after F F Worthington, MC, MM, commander of the 1st Canadian Tank Brigade. It consisted of sections of 76mm diameter pipe loaded with explosive, which when coupled together in lengths up to 130 meters, could be pushed as a unit ahead of a tank across a minefield. The subsequent detonation would clear a path through the field. It was demonstrated successfully in February and March 1942. Although the US Army had been equipped with a small number of them during the campaign in North Africa, they were not used in combat until 23 May 1944 during the breakout from the Anzio Beachhead by the US 1st Armoured Division. The successor to the 'Snake'was a British-made rocket-deployed flexible line charge called the 'Conger' It consisted of 300 m of specially woven 50 mm diameter flexible hose, which was launched across a minefield by a 130 mm rocket. After the hose was deployed, it was pumped full with approximately 1,200 kg of nitroglycerine based liquid explosive. This liquid explosive proved to be extremely dangerous. As a result, the 'Conger'was only used in combat once, when the British 79th Armoured Division used it during the battle for Calais on 25 September 1944. Modern mineclearing line charges like the US MICLIC, the Russian UR-77, and the British Giant Viper are descended from this device.
ANTI-HELICOPTER MINES
This type of mine is still emerging from the technological shadows. Arguably, the first anti-aircraft mines were barrage balloons with charges that were designed to detonate on contact with an aircraft. The first improvised anti-helicopter mines appeared during the Vietnam War and were used to cover potential landing zones. The VC employed improvised claymores most frequently in this application, although they also used grenade fougasses and other devices against the helicopters. During the Cold War, the Russians developed an anti-aircraft mine based on their SA-7/14 for use by SPETZNAZ against NATO airbases. The British and the Americans had developmental programmes for producing 'smart'anti-helicopter mines that could be deployed to engage low-flying helicopters, but these have been cancelled.
Bulgaria has developed a range of anti-helicopter mines featuring directional fragmentation charges initiated by electronic sensors; these use an acoustic alerting system and Doppler radar for initiation. Several of the mines combine the penetration of Misznay Schardin warheads with the area coverage offered by a conventional fragmentation warhead. For several years, Russia has been developing the Temp 20; this is a more sophisticated anti-helicopter mine with a single Misznay Schardin warhead, giving a lethal range of 200 m. See Mines less widely used for more details of these anti-helicopter mines.
CONCLUSION
Although innovations in mine warfare have come from a variety of sources throughout history, frequently, it has been the engineer on the ground that gained the critical insight required for the next leap forward. Mine and countermine technologies and techniques have evolved over the last 3,000 years and indeed, still continue to do so in the typical measure/countermeasure/counter-countermeasure cycle seen for other weapons.
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Dog To Dog Aggression-Learn How To Stop Dog To Dog Aggression
Tired of your four legged companion being aggressive towards other dogs? Are you looking for ways to learn how to stop dog to dog aggression? Although aggression is a difficult issue to deal with, there are different ways in which the issue can be resolved. Here are some tips for you to stop dog to dog aggression.
1 – The first step is to recognize your dog’s bodily signs of confrontation. He might stare at the other dog with the hair on the back on his neck standing. He may also flatten backwards and with a tilted head keep on staring at the other dog. This is the time to intervene, if you fail to intervene at this moment your dog may start barking or attack the other dog.
2 – While you learn how to stopdog to dog aggression, safety should be your first priority if you have a generally aggressive dog. Muzzle your dog to avoid injury to another dog.
3 – Socialize your dog as much as possible; however, you should keep him on a short leash. The more your dog encounters other dogs the less likely he will feel intimidated on spotting one.
4 - While you are on the sidewalk and another person approaches with his dog, stand in front of your dog blocking his view to the other dog and keep on speaking to him so that his attention is towards you and not the other dog. Praise your dog and perhaps give him a treat if he stays calm.
5 - You should control your own emotions while the dog is behaving aggressive. Do not yell still issue commands firmly. With your anxiety you can worsen his tension and make him to act more aggressively.
As you can see here learning how to stop dog to dog aggression can be a difficult and tedious process. When working with an aggressive dog, a good dog training course can be very useful. You will want to look for the one that includes a free consultation with an experienced dog trainer.
Ok so I am getting a new dog 1 of these (Yorkie, Pom, or Maltese) and I need to train it to poop and pee indoors on puppy pads... Should I buy a litter box and place the puppy pad in the box or should I just place the puppy pad on the floor?
Since it's such a small dog I would do the puppy pad in litter box, it would be a little easier and may keep the pup from shredding the pads
San Diego Dog Training
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The Siberian Husky and German Shepherd – Two Solid but Aloof Dogs
When you see the Siberian Husky or the German Shepherd, it is likely that you think of them on the screen as King of the Yukon or Rin Tin Tin (especially if you grew up watching old movies). In entertainment, these dogs have suffered through many generations with unusual and amazing names such as JFK's GSD, "Clipper;" Hitler's GSD, "Blondi;" and "Chucka," the Siberian Husky owned by Sgt. Robert Preston. Both breeds are equally famous for their rescue work. Togo, a Siberian Husky, led the husky team carrying the Diptheria serum to Nome in 1925. Tracker, the German Shepherd, served in the police force in the Sudbury District in Ontario where he was involved in approximately 500 searches for missing persons, criminals, drugs and security details in the early 1990's.
The Siberian Husky and the German Shepherd share many characteristics. They are both longer than they are tall, are friendly with family and friends but aloof with strangers, and are dedicated working dogs. Both have surprising facts associated with them, as well. The Siberian is around 3000 years old, originating in Siberia, to pull sleds with small loads. He is smaller than one would think, at about 35 – 50 pounds. He is known as the "escape artist" because of his ability to get over and under fences and this talent must be curbed since, as soon as he is free, he takes off running and will run easily for hours. Siberians are also surprisingly strong – as of 1963, Charlie the Husky was the strongest dog ever – he shifted a 3,142-lb sledge. The Siberian also has some interesting physical characteristics such as a nose that stays dry at night so that it doesn't freeze in sub-zero temperatures and, often, blue or piebald eyes. And Siberians are responsible for the phrase "Three Dog Night" originally coined by the Eskimos who were describing how cold it was by how many Huskies they needed to sleep with at night to keep warm.
There are also many surprising facts about the GSD. As the Siberian seems small for his strength, the GSD seems large for his agility and grace. He weighs in at 60 to 140 pounds and is the only breed whose back legs have been bred to crouch lower than his front. This characteristic began to be seen as a deformity in the mid-twentieth century and many breeders now breed straighter back legs. The GSD is part of the Herding Group as that was his original purpose though most dog owners would place him the Working Group. The first seeing eye dog, Buddy, was a GSD trained in 1928. And the GSD ranks third in canine intelligence. The German shepherd is a recent breed even though it seems as if they've been with us for many centuries. He was developed in the early part of the twentieth century, which seems impossible considering how much he has accomplished in such a short time.
Both breeds make excellent companions but serious training is needed as both are stubborn and independent. Once trained, a Siberian Husky or a German Shepherd will prove to be a dedicated, obedient dog who is even-tempered. Both have high activity levels and tend to be a one-person dog. These breeds certainly prove that dog is man's best friend and, properly trained, we can be dog's best friend, too.
About the Author
The author, Brett Carnganee lives in LA with his own lovable Prince, a Siberian Husky. When not writing in his blog or volunteering at the local pet shelter you can always be sure to find him playing with Prince at the local park.
Ontario eLite Dog Training feature on Peterborough CHEX-TV Newswatch @ 5:30
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